Not a Real Entry

Not a Real Entry Last night, I was lying on my mattress somewhere near the precarious edge of the top bunk and feeling mildly superhero-esque in a thrill-seeking, daredevilish, almost-falling-out-of-bed sort of way. I remember vaguely attempting to fall asleep, having heard stories of people doing this at times as early as 2 AM (!). And then I woke up and it was 7:13 AM on Tuesday and I rolled out of bed and ran 3 miles and ate breakfast and walked to class and realized that electric fields sort of actually exist and dropped a class (Harmony and Counterpoint I) and added another class (Harmony and Counterpoint II) and signed up for an X-tra Special musicianship audition because I missed the actual auditions and trudged to the other side of campus and bought overpriced staff paper and suffered the pains of getting owned by the college bookstores price system and then snagged two free coupon books at the MIT bookstore instead of one to mitigate the obscene expensiveness of staff paper* and made a pear salad and harmonized a Bach chorale and plowed through linear algebra homework during a differential equations recitation and pontificated about furnaces with Edward 12 for 30 minutes and went to a lab meeting and started an e m problem set that had a lot of e and no m and ate Thai food at an advising group reunion and signed up to see Spring Awakening with my advising group in May and almost went square dancing with Donald Guy 12 who was carrying about 6 cans of soda in his coat pockets and instead stumbled home at 7:30 PM and finished reconstructing deconstructed fragments of Bach and checked mail** and switched differential recitation sections via MITs uber-convenient online course management system and then realized that I had harmonized the Bach chorale in the wrong key. *This is only acceptable if youre not an economics major. **Someone just regaled the dorm mailing list with an email querying, “Anyone have cool sunglasses I can borrow in the next 15 minutes?” Real blog entry coming soon to a theater near you. Or theatre, if youre on the wrong side of the Atlantic. In the meantime, I leave you with a taste of pictures to come: Bonus Challenge: Last week, Rebecca 12 concocted this resplendent magnum opus of cakery for a dorm potluck. Name the recipe, and Rebecca 12 will personally bake you a cake at CPW* after she kills me for promising this without her permission. *Should the winner be unable to come to CPW, an alternative prize will be arranged. Cryptic Hint With Bad Wordplay: The frosting does not mix with apples, nor is it the color that it appears to be.

Prison Systems Do Not Control The Number Of Prisoners Sent

Miguel Molina Professor Nikki Drago Crimes in America 26 March 27, 2016 Overcrowding in Prisons The prison systems do not control the number of prisoners sent to jails. However, they have to deal with the consequences of this fact. In the last twenty years, all over the world, it is experienced a rapid increase in the number of prisoners. This growth is not limited to any particular type of jurisdiction or political system - it is observed in all regions of the world. According to the incapacitation effect, the shorter the span of opportunity, the fewer offences they can commit during their lives; hence crime is reduced (Siegel 101). For example, in the United States, the number of inmates in prisons has increased from half a million in†¦show more content†¦In order to ease the burden on the budget, in the 80s of the twentieth century, in the United States there was a prisons privatization process and mass construction of private prisons. Companies that own and manage prisons, camps or centers of investigative isolators’ restitution, sign a contract with the fed eral government, state government or the district authorities. They agree to keep a definite amount of prisoners according to state standards, providing a corresponding security level. The managing company receives the guaranteed amount of money from the budget for each inmate (Kamrany). There are no strikes, unemployment and other problems associated with employment. Prison labor produces night-vision goggles, body armor, camouflage uniforms, radio and communication devices, and lighting systems and components for 30-mm to 300-mm battleship anti-aircraft guns, along with land mine sweepers and electro-optical equipment for the BAE Systems Bradley Fighting Vehicle’s laser rangefinder (Flounders). The UNICOR Company is one of the largest contractors for the U.S government which is run by prison labor. With the low cost of labor there is also an increase of costs to keep the convicts in prison. However, it is assumed that exactly the privatization of prisons has led to an increase in the prison population and, consequently, an increase in the cost of their maintenance, as well as overcrowding in prisons and detention facilities,

The Poisonwood Bible, By Barbara Kingsolver, And Jane Eyre

Family Tides Family is extremely valuable and the way you re raised completely molds the your behaviour and beliefs in the future. In the novels â€Å"The Poisonwood Bible,† by Barbara Kingsolver, and â€Å"Jane Eyre,† by Charlotte Bronte, the authors express that when children are brought up by a selfish guardian it will negatively affect them. â€Å"The Poisonwood Bible† is about a christian family of six who go down to the Belgian Congo on a mission trip to â€Å"save† the Congolese. But instead of â€Å"saving† them,â€Å"[they] aimed for no more than to have dominion over every creature that moved upon the earth†(Kingsolver 10). On the other hand the book â€Å"Jane Eyre,† is about a young orphaned heroine named Jane Eyre, and her journey through life in, victorian†¦show more content†¦Reed, she still is a very passive parent and doesn t have too much of a voice of her own, instead she lets Nathan speak for her. Since she is â€Å"the conqueror s wife† she she can t help but feel as nothing more than, â€Å"a conquest herself.† She’s about as authoritative as the late Mr. Reed which doesn’t make her the best parent to raise kids in the unfamiliar Belgian Congo. Within each story there were children who weren t affected by having selfish parents. Examples of children who were unaffected in the future despite their parentage were Jane and Adah. these two being the only exceptions because of their choice to distance themselves Adah and Jane would also distance themselves by seeking seclusion within books, making it a â€Å"transient stimulus,†(Bronte 17) of some sort, for both of them allowing them to escape their guardians. As both Jane, and Adah, grew up they both seeked education unlike the rest of their family. Jane physically got away from her relatives by pursuing an education. Although she â€Å"scarcely knew what school was,† (Bronte 70) she still real ly wanted to get schooling, and finally escape the Reeds. While Jane physically left her family Adah would mentally distance herself from her family. Instead of talking, she â€Å"keeps [her] thoughts to [herself],†(Kingsolver 34)

Norman Mailer’s Stabbing of his Second Wife, Adele Morales Free Essays

Mr. Mailer was an eminent individual of America, he was known as a writer, film producer and director. He completed his Bachelors of Science in aeronautics from Harvard University in 1939. We will write a custom essay sample on Norman Mailer’s Stabbing of his Second Wife, Adele Morales or any similar topic only for you Order Now He became a very famous personality after writing many prominent novels. He married six times throughout his life. He had nine children, out of which eight were biological, and one was adopted. Norman Mailer was considered   Ã‚  a very gifted and assiduous person. In the year 1960, at a party held at his home, Mailer got drunk and stabbed his second wife, Adele Morale, practically killing her. Adele Morale was hurt in the abdomen and back of the body. Most people believed that Mailer was observed as the victim. Mailer had been motivated to do this by compulsion and mental illness, as there was no other reason which could be concluded for this sinful act. While few people criticize him and believe that Mailer did not have any admiration for women, he affirmed on a converse demonstrate, â€Å"Women ought to be kept in confine.†   In a Harper’s Magazine dissertation titled â€Å"The Prisoner of Sex†, he wrote, â€Å"The major accountability of a woman is to be on ground long enough to find the best mate for herself and envisage children who will perk up the species.† So in this research study we have covered all the facts which may be involved in Norman’s stabbing of his second wife, and have described the circumstances which provoked him to perform this violence. Life History ; Achievements of Norman Mailer Norman Mailer was an outstanding personality of the United States of America. He was an author, film producer and director. Normal Mailer was born in New Jersey in 1923. In 1939, Mailer completed his Bachelors of Science in aeronautics from the Harvard University. After completion of his edification, he initiated inscription of novels. In the year 1944, he was driven to the army, where he worked communally as a clerk and rifleman. In the year 1948, he started writing for the novel, â€Å"The Naked and The Death†. In this novel, he elucidated everything which he had perceived in World War II. This novel achieved more accomplishment than it was expected to. It was in 1960 when he wrote many dissertations and became a lead writer. In 1969, Mailer ran for mayor, this time on the â€Å"Secessionist† ticket, which included proposals that New York City become the fifty-first state and that disputes among young criminals be settled by jousting tournaments in Central Park. Mailer’s theatrical journalistic approach is presumed to be of highest esteem in the outstanding Armies of the Night. Mailer triumphed six percent of the ballot in a five man competition to turn out to be the Mayor of New York. He recognized the 1968 Republican and Democratic conference in Miami and the Siege of Chicago, and became the first man to corridor the Moon. During his life time, Mailer married six dissimilar women and had nine children from them, eight of which were his biological children and one was adopted. After spending a troublesome life, Mr. Mailer died at the age of 84 in New York, at Mount Sinai Hospital, due to renal failure. [Norm, Rich]. Marriages of Norman Mailer Norman Mailer married six times, his first marriage took place in the year 1943, and last in 1980. His first wife was Beatrice Silverman, they got married in 1943, and he divorced her in the year 1952. Adele Morales was his second wife, they got married on April 19, 1954 at City Hall, but after a few years, he attempted to kill her with a pen knife, and they were divorced after this ghastly incident. Lady Jeanne Campbell was the third wife of Mailer. They married in the year 1962 and were divorced in 1963. He then decided to marry Beverly Bentley in the year 1963. His fifth wife was Carol Steven whom he married in the year 1980; they were separated after one day of their marriage. He committed himself to Norris Church in the year 1980. [Norm, Sherry, Strifto]. The stabbing incident At a revelry in which Mr. Mailer was to announce his Mayoral candidature on the Secessionist ticket, he was heavily drunk and he stabbed his second wife Adele Morale, practically killing her. She was hit in the abdomen and back of the body, and was taken to the hospital at 8 am sharp. She was admitted to the hospital with an abrasion in close proximity to her heart. Shortly after, detectives went to question her about the incident, but they were told that she was in a very critical situation, and she could not answer their questions. The following day, the police was allowed to visit her as she was feeling better than before. She then informed them that her husband stabbed her on Sunday morning at 5 a.m. without any reason. He unexpectedly walked towards her, looked at her and stabbed her with a penknife. Adele refused to press accusation, so Mailer escaped this indignation within a fortnight at a psychiatric unit of Bellevue. This incident became one of the most terrible events of Mailer’s life. It has been a focal point for feminist critics of Mailer, who point to the subject of sexual aggression in his work.   This confrontation made him separate with his beloved wife. Furthermore, they divorced in the year 1962. This incident also blemished his career and the image he had made among fans. He was no more considered as a celebrity after stabbing his wife. Mailer also felt guilty for his act while appearing in a T.V. documentary.   He himself said, â€Å"The stabbing changed everything in my life. It is the one act I can look back on and regret for the rest of my life.† On the other hand, Adele Morales tells news reporters that Norman Mailer was never guilty for his act because if he was, it would show, additionally; he can never accept that he has any weakness in his character. Carl Rollyson unwrapped the biography of Mailer with narrations of John Maloney, an acquaintance of Mailer. It was in 1954, when Maloney stabbed his mistress and escaped. After a few years he was sent to jail but was released when the convict was taken back from his wife. At that moment, Mailer alleged to him, â€Å"God, I wish I had the courage to stab a woman like that. That was a real gutsy act.† That tells one all one needs to know about Norman Mailer’s idea of â€Å"courage.† In some instances, it conveys very modest disapproval surrounded by upscale intellectuals [Norm Kimball, 2007; Bart, 2007]. Circumstances and Causes of this Incident When the populace attempted to conclude on the subject of Mailer’s stabbing of his second wife, they were frequently bewildered. This was due to the fact that Mailer had a tremendous individuality and overwhelming intelligence, and had written many esteemed articles. While on other hand, he stabbed his wife so it is not very easy to conclude Mailer’s personality and circumstances which drove him to this act. However, we can have a spectacle on what a researcher considered about Norman Mailer, to make a conclusion about the cause of his violent act. Irving Howe believes that Mailer was observed as the victim. He also believes that Mailer had been motivated by compulsivity and mental illness as there was no other reason which can be concluded for this sin. Anyone who reads Mailer’s story would consider him as a victim and they would question themselves additionally, as to what the circumstances were, which forced him to do so. If Mailer’s attempt to assassinate his companion convened with little displeasure, the ‘American Dream’ would not run away so effortlessly. It had its admirer, and on the other hand critic Stanley Edgar Hyman, in an overwhelming review called Norman Mailer’s Luscious Rump, beam a lot, when it was called an appalling novel. Substantially added flamboyance than antagonism, it is a book whose dreadfulness is in actual fact begging description. It can be said that Mailer performed this violent act because he would be mentally depressed at times, as he had a troubling life. However, some people believe that Mailer was thought of as a celebrity who was a drinker and brawler, womanizer, biased campaigner, communal critic, talk-show guest, self-promoter, and symbol of male sexism. The stabbing incident became the evidence of Mailer’s reputation as a boisterous person too [Norm Kimball]. The above discussion clearly concludes that the causes of this incident may be   some mental illness, or it was his cruel nature towards women which made him   perform this horrible act. References Bart Barnes, November 11, 2007, A blustery force in life and letter retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2007/11/11/ST2007111101767.html. About.com, quotes about Norman Mailer previous marriages retrieved from http://marriage.about.com/od/thearts/a/normanmailer_3.htm Richard Avedo, Norman Mailer autobiography retrieved from   http://www.notablebiographies.com/Lo-Ma/Mailer-Norman.html. Mailer a dissenting view, Roger Kimball http://pajamasmedia.com/xpress/rogerkimball/2007/11/10/norman_mailer_a_dissenting_vie.php.                   How to cite Norman Mailer’s Stabbing of his Second Wife, Adele Morales, Essay examples

Negligence and Liability

Introduction Negligence is the largest of the three major categories of torts. It covers injuries or other losses caused by unreasonableness. The other two categories are intentional and strict liability torts (Statsky, 2011). The broad meaning of negligence is the failure to use reasonable care that an ordinary prudent person would have used in a similar situation, resulting in harm or other loss.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Negligence and Liability specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The short definition of the same is injury or other loss caused by the failure to use reasonable care. Okrent (2009) defines negligence as tortfeasor’s failure to exercise reasonable care, thus causing a foreseeable injury to another person or that person’s property. Negligence liability exists when someone is at fault. The injury he or she causes must be due to an error or defect in judgment or conduct to w hich blame and culpability are attached. This paper provides an analysis of a news article written within the last six months that illustrates a case of negligence. The article to be discussed is one released on Newser, an online news site developed in the United States of America. Description of the Article The said article appeared in the Newser issue of August 14th, 2012. The article is about a Thai Senator who accidentally shot his secretary at a dinner. According to a report by the police, Senator Boonsong Kowawisarat was happily enjoying a meal with members of his family when he accidentally shot his ex-wife who allegedly worked as his secretary (Quinn, 2012). Although it might appear that the shot went off accidentally, it is not obvious why he chose to go for dinner with his submachine gun loaded. In a lawsuit, close relatives of the Senator’s ex-wife were the plaintiff while Senator Boonsong Kowawisarat was the defendant. Elements of Negligence According to Iyer (200 1), the elements of negligence include duty, breach of duty, proximate cause, or casual connection, and damages. Usually, the plaintiff has the burden of proving a number of things. First, he or she must be able to show that the defendant owed a duty to him or her. Second, the plaintiff must prove that the defendant breached the duty. Thirdly, the plaintiff must be able to prove that there is a proximate cause or casual connection between the breach of duty and the injury suffered (Okrent, 2009). Finally, there must be proof of damage or actual harm caused to the plaintiff.Advertising Looking for research paper on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Each of these elements is required for negligence to exist. If the answer to any of the elements is â€Å"No†, negligence does not exist. For example, the first is whether the tortfeasor owes a duty of reasonable care to the injured party. If not, then the analysis stops with the conclusion that no negligence has occurred. If yes, then one must ask whether the tortfeasor breached the duty of reasonable care. If not, the injury is finished, and once again, the analyst concludes that there was no negligence. If yes, then one continues querying through causation, and damages. Each element must be satisfied for negligence to exist. Contributory Negligence as a Form of Negligence Defense Contributory negligence is a form of negligence defense which the defendant could use to defeat the negligence action. Although â€Å"volenti non fit injury† or â€Å"to a willing person, injury is not done† is another option that may be used by the defendant, the contributory negligence is the best way to go. Under â€Å"volenti non fit injuria†, the Senator would escape liability for the consequences of negligence if the claimant expressly or impliedly agrees to accept the legal risk associated with the negligence. Generally, contri butory negligence is considered a partial defense to the majority of actions in tort, including negligence (Okrent, 2009). Where the court finds the fault on the part of both the claimant and the defendant, then the damages will be reduced to the extent that the court thinks just and equitable. According the Law Reform Act of 1945, if any person suffers damage as the result partly of his or her own fault and partly of the fault of any other person or persons, a claim in respect of that damage shall not be defeated by reason of the fault of the persons suffering the damage, but the damages recoverable in respect shall be reduced to such extent as the court thinks just and equitable considering the claimant’s share in the responsibility for the damage. This is sometimes referred to as the stalemate rule. If both parties were to blame, the law did nothing to compensate the loss. The statutory provisions mark a considerable improvement over the previous common law in terms of not only fairness but also simplicity since the stalemate rule was subject to considerable variation over the years. For example, the courts in England have devised a last opportunity rule whereby a plaintiff whose fault had played some part in creating a hazard could still recover damages if the defendant had the last chance to avoid the harm. This rule and many intricate variations around it need not detain us because they play no part in the current law. However, since fairness and justice are the guiding principles for reducing damages, it is important to note that fairness in apportionment, taking into account relative fault and responsibility for damage, might not produce fair outcomes overall.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Negligence and Liability specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This is a particular issue in actions for personal injury, and above all, in cases where there is a compulsory scheme o f the third party insurance. The portion of damages withheld because of contributory negligence frequently represents loss that the claimant must bear alone. For example, a cyclist who gets too close to a line of parked cars may have damages reduced if a car driver carelessly opens a door into his or her path. Similarly, a pedestrian who does not take sufficient care in crossing the road may have damages reduced even if the car that hits him or her was moving too fast. As a senior government official, Senator Boonsong Kowawisarat had a right to carry his submachine gun along with him wherever he went. There are not rules that restrict senior officials of his caliber to be not armed during meal, be it with family members or otherwise. It is, therefore, unfair for any person to claim that Senator Boonsong Kowawisarat intentionally shot dead his secretary. Despite the fact that the Senator was no longer living with his ex-wife, there are no indications of any conflicts happened between them. A case of Senator Boonsong Kowawisarat is something that could happen to any one else in his position. Furthermore, the secretary is also partly to blame for what happened. Unless she had sat directly facing the Senator, she probably would not have been shot. She could have been sitting elsewhere and the tragedy would not have occurred. I am, therefore, convinced that the victim should bear part of the blame and hence, contributory negligence can be used by the Senator in defense. The apportionment of responsibility between the parties, however, ought to be the most difficult aspect of the contributory negligence. Ideally, this apportionment should reflect responsibility for the damage suffered. Responsibility in this context is a question partly of causal influence and partly of degree of fault. Practically, courts arrive at the reduction in a fairly rough manner, without engaging in very detailed enquiries about causal impact or relative fault. Argument for or Against Proce eding with a Lawsuit In my opinion, the plaintiff does not need to proceed to press charges. As it has been explained above, the plaintiff bears equal responsibility. Pressing any charges against the Senator would thus be a waste of time and money. If the court correctly applied the Law Reform Act of 1945, then the plaintiff would be on the losing end.Advertising Looking for research paper on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More From the above description of the law, it appears that the secretary had the option of sitting elsewhere, not directly facing the Senator. It was her choice of a place to sit that eventually led to her being shot dead. Furthermore, the Senator had nothing to do with her decision to sit where she did. The right thing to do, therefore, would be to desist from proceeding with a lawsuit against the Senator. References Iyer, P. W. (2001). Nursing Malpractice, 2nd ed.. Tucson, AZ: Lawyers Judges Publishing Company. Okrent, C. J. (2009). Torts and Personal Injury Law. Clifton Park: Cengage Learning. Quinn, R. (2012, August 14). Thai Senator ‘Accidentally’ Shoots Secretary at Dinner: His Uzi Goes off in Restaurant. Newser. Retrieved from https://www.newser.com/story/152036/thai-senator-accidentally-shoots-secretary-at-dinner.html Statsky, W. P. (2011). Essentials of Torts. Clifton Park: Cengage Learning. This research paper on Negligence and Liability was written and submitted by user Santos Ramos to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Demand and Supply of Kitkat Essays

Demand and Supply of Kitkat Essays Demand and Supply of Kitkat Essay Demand and Supply of Kitkat Essay Based on the demanded and supply of Kitkat, If I am the manager of Ten-10 in Lim Kok Wing University, I would lower the price of a bar of KitKat. In demand, if I lower the price of a bar of KitKat, the quantity of demanded will increase, so more people would buy the bar of Kitkat. More people in Lim Kok Wing University would afford to buy the bar of Kitkit. In supply, the lower the price of a bar of KitKat, the greater the quantity supply. So there is more product to being sell. 2 a)If the price of chicken rice increase, the quantity demand of chicken rice will decrease, therefore less people will buy chicken rice in Lim Kok Wing University. In supply, the quantity of supply will increase. b)If the price of potato and mix vegetables increase, the price of chicken chop will remain the same. They will put less vegetable and potato for the chicken rice to prevent raise of price of the chicken rice. The cost and quantity of chicken rice will still be the same. So there are no change in quantity of chicken rice and the rise of price in chicken rice. c)If the price of the chicken rice, burger and Malay cuisine at other outlet in Makanlah increase, the amount of student in Lim Kok Wing that going to eat lunch the will be decrease. The quantity of chicken rice, burger and Malay cuisine will increase because there is less student buy the food. 3)

The Domestication and History of Modern Horses

The Domestication and History of Modern Horses The modern domesticated horse (Equus caballus) is today spread throughout the world and among the most diverse creatures on the planet. In North America, the horse was part of the megafaunal extinctions at the end of the Pleistocene. Two wild subspecies survived until recently, the Tarpan (Equus ferus ferus, died out ca 1919) and Przewalskis Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii, of which there are a few left). Horse history, especially the timing of the domestication of the horse, is still being debated, partly because the evidence for domestication itself is debatable. Unlike other animals, criteria such as changes in body morphology (horses are extremely diverse) or the location of a particular horse outside of its normal range (horses are very widespread) are not useful in helping resolve the question. Evidence for Horse Domestication The earliest possible hints for domestication would be the presence of what appears to be a set of postmolds with lots of animal dung within the area defined by the posts, which scholars interpret as representing a horse pen. That evidence has been found at Krasnyi Yar in Kazakhstan, in portions of the site dating to as early as 3600 BC. The horses may have been kept for food and milk, rather than riding or load-bearing. Accepted archaeological evidence of horseback riding includes bit wear on horse teeth- that has been found in the steppes east of the Ural mountains at Botai and Kozhai 1 in modern Kazakhstan, around 3500-3000 BC. The bit wear was only found on a few of the teeth in the archaeological assemblages, which might suggest that a few horses were ridden to hunt and collect wild horses for food and milk consumption. Finally, the earliest direct evidence of the use of horses as beasts of burden- in the form of drawings of horse-drawn chariots- is from Mesopotamia, about 2000 BC. Krasnyi Yar includes over 50 residential pithouses, adjacent to which have been found dozens of postmolds. The postmolds- archaeological remnants of where posts have been set in the past- are arranged in circles, and these are interpreted as evidence of horse corrals. Horse History and Genetics Genetic data, interestingly enough, has traced all extant domesticated horses to one founder stallion, or to closely related male horses with the same Y haplotype. At the same time, there is a high matrilineal diversity in both domestic and wild horses. At least 77 wild mares would be required to explain the diversity of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in current horse populations, which probably means quite a few more. A 2012 study (Warmuth and colleagues) combining archaeology, mitochondrial DNA, and Y-chromosomal DNA supports the domestication of horse as occurring once, in the western part of the Eurasian steppe, and that because of the horses wild natures, several repeated introgression events (restocking of horse populations by adding wild mares), must have occurred. As identified in earlier studies, that would explain the diversity of mtDNA. Three Strands of Evidence for Domesticated Horses In a paper published in Science in 2009, Alan K. Outram and colleagues looked at three strands of evidence supporting horse domestication at Botai culture sites: shin bones, milk consumption, and bitwear. These data support domestication of the horse between about 3500-3000 BC sites in what is today Kazakhstan. Horses skeletons at Botai Culture sites have gracile metacarpals. The horses metacarpals- the shins or cannon bones- are used as key indicators of domesticity. For whatever reason (and I wont speculate here), shins on domestic horses are thinner- more gracile- than those of wild horses. Outram et al. describe the shinbones from Botai as being closer in size and shape to those of Bronze age (fully domesticated) horses compared to wild horses. Fatty lipids of horse milk were found inside of pots. Although today it seems a bit weird to westerners, horses were kept for both their meat and milk in the past- and still are in the Kazakh region as you can see from the photograph above. Evidence of horse milk was found at Botai in the form of fatty lipid residues on the insides of ceramic vessels; further, evidence for consumption of horse meat has been identified at Botai culture horse and rider burials. Bit wear is in evidence on horse teeth. Researchers noted bitting wear on horses teeth- a vertical strip of wear on the outside of horses premolars, where the metal bit damages the enamel when it sits between the cheek and tooth. Recent studies (Bendrey) using scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis found microscopic-sized fragments of iron embedded on Iron Age horse teeth, resulting from metal bit use. White Horses and History White horses have had a special place in ancient history-according to Herodotus, they were held as sacred animals in the Achaemenid court of Xerxes the Great (ruled 485-465 BC). White horses are associated with the Pegasus myth, the unicorn in the Babylonian myth of Gilgamesh, Arabian horses, Lipizzaner stallions, Shetland ponies, and Icelandic pony populations. The Thoroughbred Gene A recent DNA study (Bower et al.) examined the DNA of Thoroughbred racing horses and identified the specific allele which drives their speed and precocity. Thoroughbreds are a specific breed of horse, all of whom today are descended from the children of one of three foundation stallions: Byerley Turk (imported to England in the 1680s), Darley Arabian (1704) and Godolphin Arabian (1729). These stallions are all of Arab, Barb and Turk origin; their descendants are from one of only 74 British and imported mares. Horse breeding histories for Thoroughbreds have been recorded in the General Stud Book since 1791, and the genetic data certainly supports that history. Horse races in the 17th and 18th centuries ran 3,200-6,400 meters (2-4 miles), and horses were usually five or six years old. By the early 1800s, the Thoroughbred was bred for traits that enabled speed and stamina over distances from 1,600-2,800 meters at three years of age; since the 1860s, the horses have been bred for shorter races (1,000-1400 meters) and younger maturity, at 2 years. The genetic study looked at the DNA from hundreds of horses and identified the gene as C type myostatin gene variant, and came to the conclusion that this gene originated from a single mare, bred to one of the three founder male horses about 300 years ago. See Bower et al for additional information. Thistle Creek DNA and Deep Evolution In 2013, researchers led by Ludovic Orlando and Eske Willerslev of the Centre for GeoGenetics, Natural History Museum of Denmark and University of Copenhagen (and reported in Orlando et al. 2013) reported on a metapodial horse fossil which had been found in permafrost within a Middle Pleistocene context in the Yukon territory of Canada and dated between 560,00-780,000 years ago. Amazingly, the researchers found that there were sufficiently intact molecules of collagen within the matrix of the bone to enable them to map the Thistle Creek horses genome. The researchers then compared the Thistle Creek specimen DNA to that of an Upper Paleolithic horse, a modern donkey, five modern domestic horse breeds, and one modern Przewalskis horse. Orlando and Willerslevs team found that over the past 500,000 years, horse populations have been enormously sensitive to climate change and that extremely low population sizes are associated with warming events. Further, using the Thistle Creek DNA as a baseline, they were able to determine that all modern existing equids (donkeys, horses, and zebras) originated from a common ancestor some 4-4.5 million years ago. In addition, Przewalskis horse diverged from the breeds which became domestic some 38,000-72,000 years ago, confirming the long-held belief that Przewalskis is the last remaining wild horse species. Sources Bendrey R. 2012. From wild horses to domestic horses: a European perspective. World Archaeology 44(1):135-157. Bendrey R. 2011. Identification of metal residues associated with bit-use on prehistoric horse teeth by scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 38(11):2989-2994. Bower MA, McGivney BA, Campana MG, Gu J, Andersson LS, Barrett E, Davis CR, Mikko S, Stock F, Voronkova V et al. 2012. The genetic origin and history of speed in the Thoroughbred racehorse. Nature Communications 3(643):1-8. Brown D, and Anthony D. 1998. Bit Wear, Horseback Riding and the Botai Site in Kazakstan. Journal of Archaeological Science 25(4):331-347. Cassidy R. 2009. The horse, the Kyrgyz horse and the ‘Kyrgyz horse’. Anthropology Today 25(1):12-15. Jansen T, Forster P, Levine MA, Oelke H, Hurles M, Renfrew C, Weber J, Olek, and Klaus. 2002. Mitochondrial DNA and the origins of the domestic horse. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99(16):10905–10910. Levine MA. 1999. Botai and the origins of horse domestication. 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